Identity Formation as a Critical Thinker

Teaching Critical and Creative Thinking, Semester 4 - October 2021

INTRODUCTION

The Victorian Curriculum describes the ‘Critical and Creative Thinking’ capability as a focus “on the development of increasingly complex and sophisticated processes of thinking.” Rooted from the Greek word ‘Kritikos’, defined as ‘able to make judgements’ (Gupta & Upshur, 2012), Critical thinking has become a core concept in western education. The cross curriculum capability was introduced to Victoria in 2018 as a way to measure non academic skills, such as problem solving, reasoning, evaluating, processing information, and applying knowledge to different situations (Cook, 2018). While the Critical and Creative Thinking capability aligns well within the Visual Arts curriculum for analysing and evaluating meanings and messages of artworks, the question arises of how these skills can be adapted to evaluate other areas of students’ lives. This leads to the problem: How can Visual Arts education be used to support social and emotional development, and contribute to adolescent identity formation? By exploring the role of critical thinking within the art classroom, this paper will provide guidelines towards implementing an identity mediated teaching practice. 

CONTEXT: CRITICAL THINKING

What is Critical Thinking?

The multitude of understandings and definitions of critical thinking highlights the abstract concept's complex nature. For example, Daniel Willingham (2010) offers the definition as “seeing both sides of an issue [and] being open to new evidence that disconfirms young ideas”, while Peter Facione (2011) describes it as “purposeful, reflective judgement that results in a reasoned and fair consideration of evidence.” Throughout the quantities of definitions, the key idea that repeatedly arises seems to concern the examination and evaluation of beliefs and actions. For the purpose of this paper, critical thinking refers to the ability to assess the information we receive. 

We as humans naturally want to believe and find reasons for things. For this reason, we often create explanations to satisfy ourselves and make sense of the world around us. However, in the occurrence of cognitive dissonance, our beliefs are presented with evidence that conflicts with them. We can either learn to change our beliefs, or dismiss the conflicting evidence. In order to overcome this inherent bias, we must question both ourselves and all the information we receive from others.

Scepticism plays an important role within science and philosophy. Academic sceptics argue that sensory impressions, which are often used as the foundation of knowledge about the world, do not actually enable you to know anything (Nagel, 2016). For example, you may believe you are reading this paper right now. But how do you know that for sure? You could instead be lying in bed asleep, dreaming that you were reading this paper. Ancient Chinese philosopher Zhuangzi once dreamt that he was a butterfly. When he woke, he did not know if he was a man who had dreamt of being a butterfly, or a butterfly now dreaming of being a man (Tallis, 2009). Neither of these ideas could be proven to be true. The academic sceptics used scenarios like this to argue that knowledge of the world is impossible. 

Karl Popper’s Principle of Falsification (1963) describes how any theory or claim can only be meaningful if it can be proven false. To claim that ‘all birds are white’ for example, can be falsified by the existence of a single brown bird. In contrast, the claim that an all powerful, omniscient God exists as a transcendental being beyond the realm of observation, has no evidence and thus cannot be falsified. Therefore, there is no way to know if this claim is true, but also no way to know if it is false.

These ideas and skills are what contribute to critical thinking. It is in our nature to think, however, much of our thinking is influenced by biases, distortions or prejudice. The quality of our life, decisions and actions is determined by the quality of our thoughts. It is therefore important to systematically cultivate a way of thinking that allows us to evaluate and improve the quality of our thoughts.

Characteristics of a Critical Thinker

By moving beyond ‘typical’ thinking models, to an advanced way of thought, critical thinkers can produce a greater number of and further developed ideas. They become more proficient in their skills by using a range of inquiry techniques, enabling them to discover and evaluate new information and ideas. Additionally, they typically develop the following traits (Ruggiero, 2012):

  • ability to acknowledge personal limitations,

  • ability to see problems as exciting challenges,

  • create goals to understand,

  • use evidence to make judgments,

  • show interest in others’ ideas,

  • sceptical of extremist views,

  • think before acting, and

  • engage in active listening.

In contrast, non critical thinkers (Ruggiero, 2012):

  • see a limited number of perspectives,

  • often take the first approach that occurs to them,

  • make quick judgements,

  • think of their ideas as better than everyone else's,

  • resist change, and

  • think in stereotypes.

Critical thinkers tend to see problems from multiple perspectives and consider different investigative approaches. This allows for a greater willingness to take intellectual risks, consider uncommon ideas, and use and develop their creativity and imagination.

Critical thinking is a valuable skill for students to learn and develop into the future. By developing judgement, evaluation and problem solving skills, critical thinking enhances multiple areas of students’ lives. By developing logical thinking skills, students develop a logical approach to persuasion. Additionally, being able to distinguish between emotion and logic assists in identifying and solving problems effectively and recognising rhetoric. Rayhanul (2015) discusses the important role critical thinking has in self reflection. In order to create and live a meaningful life, it is vital to justify and reflect upon our values and decisions. Additionally, these skills enhance students’ academic performances through analysis and critique of ideas, and forming connections across disciplines. A 2013 survey by The Association of American Colleges and Universities found that 93% of employers who participated in the study agreed that “a candidate’s demonstrated capacity to think critically, communicate clearly, and solve complex problems is more important than their undergraduate major.” This knowledge of the types of reasoning helps to break down ideas into logical statements, and then build connections between what they learn and their existing knowledge. Students are able to see knowledge as useful and applicable within their own lives, and connect on a deeper, meaningful level.

PROBLEM: WHAT CHALLENGES ARE YOUNG PEOPLE FACING?

The World Health Organisation (2021) estimates that there are 2.8 billion people between the ages of 10 and 19 living in Australia today. Adolescents in secondary school are at a critical point in their identity formation, and are moulded by the vast amount of images and information they are exposed to. They go through often extreme hormonal changes, puberty, social and parental forces and expectations, and school pressures amongst much more. Adolescent physical changes, including development of secondary sexual characteristics, acne and hair, often create a concern with the perception of oneself from others. Emotionally, adolescents are challenged and confused about their role, being torn between their responsibilities as developing adults and their desires as children. 

A 2020 study, “What Matters to Young People in Victoria” conducted by the Department of Premier and Cabinet, found that mental health is a critical issue for young people. 1 in 4 young people aged between 12 and 25 experience mental illness in any given year (Royal Commission into Victoria’s Mental Health System, 2019). Many experience these mental health issues while undergoing transition and change, feeling pressure towards academic achievement, forming social relationships and planning a course for the future. Those surveyed reported facing challenges surrounding discrimination and homophobia, body image, sexual violence and victim blaming, gendered stereotypes and inequality, in addition to experiencing trauma from recent world events and a severe concern about their future and climate change.


PROPOSITION: HOW CAN CRITICAL THINKING ADDRESS THESE ISSUES AND CONTRIBUTE TO IDENTITY FORMATION?

The research on the relationship between adolescent mental and emotional health and self expression is fixed in the fields of social cognition and differential psychology, focusing on how creativity is a subdomain of the self and identity (Linesch, 1988; Barbot & Heuser, 2017). David Takacs’ (2003) discussion on how one's positionality influences how they think is a crucial idea to use within critical thinking. By acknowledging and becoming aware of the bounds of our own perspective, our assumptions which we have taken as universal truths, and how our unique experiences have influenced these ideas, we develop the skill of understanding how we know what we know, therefore unlocking the key to lifelong learning.

Critical Thinking within Visual Art

Visual Arts is an effective discipline for building and developing critical thinking skills and understanding how we know what we know. As critical thinking involves logic and rational thinking as opposed to instinct, many see it as a hindrance to creativity. However, art education encourages students to observe the world from multiple views and perspectives. Within the study of artworks, critical thinking is used to find, evaluate and analyse complex layers of meanings. By developing new ideas, and evaluating if they are relevant to the task, critical thinking actually promotes creativity.

It is a natural response for humans to want to make connections when looking at an artwork. For example, the Renaissance period from the 15th and 16th century illustrated a myriad of tales from Greek Mythology. A viewer who shares knowledge of these gods, goddesses and myths will be able to make connections within the artwork, and thus understand what the artist was trying to communicate. In contrast, for example, when looking at the ‘drip technique’ paintings of Jackson Pollock, it may be harder to form connections, and a greater variety of responses will occur, each as valuable as the other. Critical thinking teaches viewers to analyse and evaluate the information given, including the subject, technique, context, and didactic information. By evaluating initial responses and allowing the brain to engage further with the artwork, greater understanding can be gained.

Within the classroom, when facilitating students’ interpretations, prompting students to elaborate on their ideas through phrases such as “what do you see that makes you say that?” and establishing connections by asking “how does the artwork relate to the world today” and the students’ current contexts, students are able to develop and strengthen their analytical and critical thinking skills. These critical thinking skills used when engaging with art (Clanton, 2017):

  • stimulate the imagination,

  • reduce stress levels, and

  • build positive self-awareness of one’s position within the world.

With this in mind, there is the potential for artwork analysis to be used to prompt conversations about challenges students’ may face, and encourage critical thinking to debunk shared and stereotypical views, therefore contributing to a fuller sense of self.

Developing Classroom Talk

In order to facilitate and encourage authentic and open dialogue, teachers must create a judgement free environment. According to The New Yorker (2019), one in three people decline to discuss topics such as politics except in private, with fewer than one in four participating in conversation with someone with differentiating political views. In the aforementioned article, John McWhorter is quoted saying “many of the things that we’re being told we shouldn’t even discuss, and that the mere discussion of it constitutes a space becoming unsafe, are really things which, in an intelligent and moral environment, people will reasonably have discussions about''. Many students are eager to discuss current and controversial topics, but teachers are often reluctant to engage due to their own beliefs or fear of backlash. Teachers must be able to foster this ‘intelligent and moral’ environment to support their students in engaging in these debates in a safe way, in order to prepare our students for effective citizenship, and help them unpack situations and challenges that directly affect them.

A ‘judgement free’ environment refers both to a teacher’s judgement of their students, as well as students’ judgements about their peers. When people are scared to be honest or mislabeled and adhere to excessive political correctness, open dialogue cannot take place. Teachers must ensure that students’ voices and opinions are heard, whether we agree or disagree. It is sometimes required for stereotypes, misinformed or extreme ideas to arise, to encourage students’ to explain their thinking and encourage their peers to evaluate and question their logic. Judgement often stems from lack of understanding. Encouraging students to ask questions to gain clarity and understanding will over time reduce the judgement students may have.

Outline of a Lesson

The following examples of learning activities outline an approach to art education that encourages and utilises critical thinking to discuss challenges and issues that are directly affecting students.

This lesson focuses on the portrayal of the female body and beauty standards. Advances in technology mean adolescents in vulnerable positions are facing issues no other generation has to this extreme. Popular social networking sites were launched post 2003 (Boyd & Ellison, 2007), meaning that today’s generation of adolescents are the first to have ‘grown up’ with them. Social media and digital communication has altered the way we interact with others and ourselves. One of the main issues caused by these media outlets and networks is the impact they have on adolescent body image. The most popular social media networks are predominantly image or video based, and as such, people tend to curate their social media identity in order to present only the best and most attractive versions of themselves (Zhao, Grasmuck & Martin, 2008). Viewing these images that are often edited and/or filtered, and reading the appearance based comments and praise they receive, has the potential to influence the body image of others.

Date: Term 1

Year level: 10

Time: 60 minutes

Lesson Topic and Learning Intentions: The Portrayal of Women Throughout Art History

By the end of the lesson, students will be able to

  • Understand how beauty standards have changed throughout history

  • Demonstrate critical thinking skills to evaluate current beauty standards

Link to Curriculum

VCAA Visual Arts Level 9 & 10

  • Respond and Interpret: Analyse and interpret artworks to explore the different forms of expression, intentions and viewpoints of artists and how they are viewed by audiences (VCAVAR045)

  • Respond and Interpret: Analyse, interpret and evaluate a range of visual artworks from different cultures, historical and contemporary contexts, including artworks by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples to explore differing viewpoints (VCAVAR046)

VCAA Critical and Creative Thinking Level 9 & 10

  • Questions and Possibilities: Challenge previously held assumptions and create new links, proposals and artefacts by investigating ideas that provoke shifts in perspectives and cross boundaries to generate ideas and solutions (VCCCTQ045)

  • Meta-Cognition: Investigate the kind of criteria that can be used to rationally evaluate the quality of ideas and proposals, including the qualities of viability and workability (VCCCTM053)

Physical Space and Grouping

Tables arranged in a U shape, opening to the teacher and projector at the front of the room. This setup easily allows students to clearly see both the teacher and their peers, allowing open and engaging conversation between them. 

Resources and Materials

  • Venus of Willendorf (Appendix 1)

  • Standing Parvati (Appendix 2)

  • Aphrodite, Pan and Eros (Appendix 3)

  • The Birth of Venus (Appendix 4)

  • Venus and Cupid (Appendix 5)

  • Les Demoiselles d’Avignon (Appendix 6)

  • Female Nude (Appendix 7)

  • Pamela Anderson: Miracle Tan (Appendix 8)

Transition Stage

[5 minutes] Reflection on our own body image

  • Prompt students to write down everything they like about themselves on a piece of paper. Inform students that this task is private and they will not have to share these thoughts. Next, have students flip the piece of paper and write everything they would like to change about themselves.

  • Ask students to reflect either individually or with a friend on the following:

    • Which task was easier?

    • Was their result healthy?

    • How many things are related to their physical appearance?

    • Are the things they would like to change based on any beauty standards? Where did they get these beauty standards from?

Engagement Stage

[5 minutes] Discussion

  • After students have reflected on these ideas privately, facilitate a constructivist (Piaget, 1976) class discussion on beauty standards and body image.

    • Where did these beauty standards come from?

    • Who dictates these beauty standards for women in particular? Other women? Or men?

Building Knowledge Stage

[10 minutes] Listing beauty standards

  • Split students into 8 groups and give each a different artwork depicting the female body to analyse (Appendix 1 - 8).

  • After discussing their given artwork and it’s context, students create a list of beauty standards based upon it. 

  • Students then compare the list they have made with what they believe today’s beauty standards are, and discuss how the depicted woman in the artwork would be perceived now.

  • One member of each group presents their findings to the rest of the class, going in chronological order of oldest artwork to most recent.

Transition Stage

[25 minutes] Community of Inquiry

  • After each group has presented, facilitate a Community of Inquiry (Garrison, Archer & Anderson, 2000).

  • Students work collaboratively to decide which of the given artworks, if any, portrays the healthiest beauty standards.

  • Begin by asking each student to pick which artwork they initially believe is the ‘healthiest’.

  • Prompt students to examine their belief with evidence and reasoning, while learning from each other through listening, building on and respecting others ideas (Gardner, 1996). 

  • Encourage students to further develop their ideas with the following questions:

    • How and why have these beauty standards changed over time?

    • What do these portrayals say about the role of women?

    • Does the gender of the artist contribute to the portrayal? 

    • Does the male gaze contribute to these beauty standards?

Conclusion

[5 minutes] Discussion

  • When the COI has reached a natural end point, ask each student individually again what artwork they believe is the ‘healthiest’ and if their choice has changed.

  • Ask students to look at the lists they created at the beginning of the lesson and annotate them

    • What beauty standards do these ideas relate to?

    • Are they healthy?

This lesson encourages students to examine their own perception about themselves and their bodies through critical reflection and analysis. By encouraging critical thinking to explore these ideas, students work towards being kinder to themselves and their bodies, and thus contributing to their identity. Through the critical reflection and analysis of artworks portraying women, students are able to recognise and evaluate how women have been observed throughout history. Additionally, by making connections between these artworks and the beauty standards of their time, and the ideas students place upon themselves, they are able to scrutinise the validity of these standards and their perceptions of beauty. Embracing scepticism when evaluating beauty standards allows students to recognise why these beauty standards have transformed into what they are today, and place doubt behind their motives. When arguing for which artwork is the most ‘healthy’, the Principle of Falsification can be used. If a student argues that a large woman is unhealthy because they are ‘fat’, a single example of a large or curvaceous woman within a healthy weight range can disprove this idea, and vice versa with ‘skinny’ being healthy.

CONCLUSION

The role of critical thinking within students' lives has the potential to support their social and emotional development and formation of their identity. Adolescent students within secondary school are in a vulnerable position in their lives, and are experiencing great transitions. Using artwork analysis as a catalyst for engaging in constructivist and collaborative discussions allows students to engage in and discuss challenges and ideas that are relevant to them at that point in their lives. Additionally, these critical thinking skills and strategies contribute to students’ lifelong learning, giving them the ability to acknowledge their personal limitations and develop well rounded world views. Our thought processes are influenced by our biases, distortions and prejudices, and by evaluating what we think we know, we systematically improve the quality of our thoughts, and consequently the quality of our lives. 

APPENDIX

Appendix 1.

Unknown. (Circa 24000-22000 BC). Venus of Willendorf [limestone sculpture]. Natural History Museum, Vienna.

Appendix 2.

Unknown. (Circa 1000 BC). Standing Parvati [metalwork]. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.

Appendix 3. 

Unknown. (Circa 100 BC). Aphrodite, Pan and Eros [sculpture]. National Archaeological Museum of Athens, Greece.

Appendix 4. 

Botticelli, S. (1485). The Birth of Venus [painting]. Le Gallerie Degli Uffizi, Florence.

Appendix 5.

Gentileschi, A. (1630) Venus and Cupid [painting]. Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, Virginia.

Appendix 6.

Picasso, P. (1907). Les Demoiselles d'Avignon [painting]. Museum of Modern Art, New York.

Appendix 7.

Schiele, E. (1910). Female Nude [lithograph]. Albertina Museum, Vienna.

Appendix 8.

LaChapelle, D. (2004). Pamela Anderson: Miracle Tan [chromogenic print]. Staley-Wise Gallery, New York.

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